Glossary · 3 · Understanding
Worked example
Also known as: Worked-out example, Worked-example effect
German: ausgearbeitetes Lösungsbeispiel
In instructional design and technical communication, a worked example is a step-by-step demonstration of how a problem of a given type is solved, from the starting situation to the solution; the worked-example effect describes the finding that novices learn more from studying such examples than from solving equivalent problems on their own (Sweller and Cooper, 1985).
- Applied cognitive psychology
- Understanding
In one sentence
A worked example shows step by step how a problem is solved; novices often learn more from studying one than from solving it alone (Sweller and Cooper, 1985).
Example
A PLC programming guide shows a complete example of configuring a motion axis: the starting parameters, each setting with the reason for its value, and the expected trace after commissioning; a second example then leaves the last two settings for the reader.
Rests on
- Cognitive load theory: solving unfamiliar problems by means–end analysis consumes working memory that is then not available for learning the solution pattern; studying an example frees it.
- Cognitive schema: examples help readers build schemas of problem types they can later apply.
- Expertise reversal effect: what helps novices can hinder experts.
How it applies
- Configuration and programming documentation: Complete, realistic examples that show not only the code or settings but why each value is chosen and what result to expect.
- Fading: Later examples leave steps for the reader to complete, moving from studying to doing (Atkinson, Derry, Renkl and Wortham, 2000, review such instructional principles).
- Machinery documentation: A fully worked example of a calculation or setting (for example a format parameter set) next to the general procedure.
- Software documentation: A code sample becomes a worked example when it starts from a realistic situation, explains its steps and shows its output.
Worked example vs. code sample
A code sample shows a solution; a worked example also shows the path to it and the reasons for each step. Many reference samples are too short to work as examples.
Limits
- Most evidence comes from learning experiments in school mathematics, physics and programming with novices.
- With growing expertise the benefit disappears or reverses (Kalyuga, Ayres, Chandler and Sweller, 2003); offer experts the reference, not the example only.
- An example never replaces the general procedure or the warnings that apply to it.